Tribal data sovereignty is an essential component of self-determination and the preservation of cultural identity for Native American tribes. In the modern age, technology has become a critical tool in this endeavor, particularly the use of drones for monitoring natural resources and the development of drone database training programs.

The Tohono O’odham Nation, located in the Sonoran Desert of southern Arizona, is a territory rich in natural resources that have sustained its people for generations. The nation covers approximately 2.8 million acres, making it one of the largest Indigenous landholdings in the United States. The historical and cultural heritage of the Tohono O’odham also extends into northern Mexico, reaching from the international border to the coastline of the Gulf of California. This land is not only vast but also rich in biodiversity, featuring a variety of ecosystems that range from desert lowlands to mountainous regions. Additionally, it includes numerous sites and routes of significant cultural and historical importance. Conservation is a central tenet of the Tohono O’odham approach to natural resource management. The nation has established policy to preserve critical habitats and species. These efforts are supported by environmental education programs that promote sustainable practices among the community. The Tohono O’odham Natural Resources Department (TONDNR) plays a pivotal role in these initiatives, overseeing the management and protection of the nation’s natural assets.

The Tohono O’odham Community College (TOCC) responds to the needs of the TONDNR by providing associate’s degrees and micro-certificate programs in areas that support natural resources conservation efforts. One of its current foremost efforts is a drone technology or unmanned aerial vehicle certificate program.

UNDERSTANDING TRIBAL DATA SOVEREIGNTY

Tribal data sovereignty is a concept that refers to the rights of Indigenous tribes and nations to govern the collection, ownership, and application of their data (Lovett et al., 2018; Kukutai & Taylor, 2016). Tribal data sovereignty is increasingly relevant in the age of digital information and technological advancements, such as drone imagery and analysis. Drones, or unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs), offer profound capabilities for collecting high-resolution imagery and data, which can be utilized for numerous applications ranging from environmental monitoring to cultural preservation. However, the use of drone technology within Indigenous territories raises important issues about data ownership, privacy, and governance, besides those already contemplated in present-day U.S. regulations. While the benefits of drone technology are clear, there are significant challenges that must be addressed to ensure that drone use respects tribal data sovereignty. These include data ownership, privacy and consent, and capacity building.

The Tohono O’odham homeland stretches from southern Arizona to the Gulf of California. Panoramic drone photographs can help detect, monitor, and mitigate climate change impacts.

Ownership of the data collected by drones is a foremost priority. Indigenous communities must have control over who collects data, how it is used, and who has access to it. This requires clear agreements and protocols that recognize the authority of tribal governments over their data. Privacy and consent are significant concerns as well, as the use of drones can raise myriad issues, particularly if drones capture images or information about individuals without their consent. It is essential to establish ethical guidelines to protect the privacy of community members and ensure that their consent is obtained before data collection. In addition, to fully exercise data sovereignty, Indigenous communities need the capacity to manage and analyze drone data. This includes access to technology, training, and resources to develop expertise in data management and analysis. Building this capacity is crucial for tribes to leverage drone technology effectively and independently.

BENEFITS OF DRONE MONITORING

The use of drones presents a multitude of advantages for tribal communities. Drones are cost-effective, serving as a financially efficient alternative to conventional methods of data collection, such as manned aircraft or satellite imaging. This affordability allows tribes to allocate resources more effectively, facilitating more extensive and frequent data-gathering efforts. Drones also offer timely data, capturing and transmitting data in near real-time and enabling tribes to make informed decisions efficiently. This immediate access to information is crucial for swiftly addressing environmental threats, such as natural disasters or ecological changes, ultimately enhancing the community’s responsiveness and resilience.

The deployment of drones empowers tribes to independently collect, monitor, and analyze data without relying on external entities, offering tribes autonomy and control. This self-sufficiency not only bolsters data sovereignty but also minimizes the risks associated with unplanned data sharing. Such control fosters a sense of ownership over critical information, reinforcing the tribe’s ability to manage its own resources and environment. At the same time, drones enhance traditional environmental practices and management strategies. By providing detailed insights into land use, resource distribution, and ecosystem health, drones aid tribes in integrating modern technology with time-honored environmental stewardship, ensuring the preservation of cultural practices while advancing scientific understanding.

Drones can enhance cultural practices by capturing ultra high-resolution images such as these, helping to identify and monitor hia tadk, or sand food (Pholisma sonorae), a traditional seasonal food gathered by the O’odham.

Controlled data collection also enables significant improvements in spatial and temporal data resolution, thereby providing imagery that more effectively supports national decision-making processes. Conventional high-resolution satellite imagery typically offers pixel resolutions of 10 to 30 meters, with revisit times spanning five to 15 days. In contrast, drone-based systems deliver standard submeter resolution, with the capability to achieve ultrahigh resolution measured in subcentimeters. Additionally, drones permit near real-time revisits, offering unparalleled flexibility in data acquisition. Such high-resolution, temporally adaptive imaging is particularly critical for detecting and mitigating localized climate change impacts.

CASE STUDIES AND SUCCESS STORIES ON NATIVE AMERICAN LANDS

Several case studies highlight successful drone monitoring and database training implementation. The Confederated Tribes of the Colville Reservation have adopted drone technology to improve their management of natural resources, especially timber, which is vital for their economy. Drones monitor forest health, detect wildfires, and manage timber resources. By analyzing drone data, forestry experts can identify stressed or diseased areas and track vegetation changes, allowing for timely interventions that strengthen forest resilience. This integration of drone technology enables the tribes to balance economic interests with environmental conservation, promoting long-term sustainability while preserving their environmental legacy and setting an example for communities worldwide (Smith, 2017).

The Cherokee Nation is revolutionizing its agricultural practices with advanced drone technology. This innovation aims to boost crop yields, promote sustainable farming, and conduct efficient land surveys. Drones quickly cover large areas and capture highresolution images, providing insights into terrain and crop health while identifying issues like soil erosion and pest infestations. The data from drones helps farmers make informed decisions about planting, fertilizing, and harvesting, optimizing yields, and reducing waste. Emphasizing sustainability, drones monitor crop health and soil conditions, allowing for environmentally friendly practices that limit chemical use. As drone technology continues to develop, its benefits for agriculture are expected to expand further (Cherokee Federal, 2020).

The Navajo Nation employs drones to effectively preserve its natural heritage across Arizona, Utah, and New Mexico. Equipped with advanced sensors and cameras, these drones aid conservation efforts by conducting aerial surveys to swiftly gather data on soil erosion, vegetation health, and wildlife populations. In the arid regions of the Navajo Nation where efficient water management is vital, drones capture imagery of water bodies and irrigation systems, helping to identify contamination sources and assess the health of rivers and lakes. Drone imagery also detects pipeline leaks and assists in planning conservation measures during droughts. Drone use helps protect sacred sites by monitoring these areas for threats like unauthorized access and erosion, ensuring their preservation for future generations. As a result, drones have become invaluable tools in safeguarding Navajo sacred sites (AECOM, 2021).

These examples demonstrate the diverse applications and tangible benefits of integrating drone technology into tribal resource management strategies. Today, the Tohono O’odham Nation is taking steps to do the same.

DRONES FOR THE TOHONO O’ODHAM NATION’S CULTURAL AND NATURAL RESOURCES

Drones can capture high-resolution images and videos, enabling tribes to monitor ecosystems, track wildlife populations, and detect changes in land use. Drones assist in surveying and mapping tribal lands, assessing water resources, and managing forestry and agricultural activities. Drones can document and protect sacred sites, archaeological findings, and cultural landscapes, ensuring their preservation for future generations.

This panoramic drone photograph features Tjuktóak Peak, the Sierra Blanca, and the Ives Lava Flow (left), historically central landforms of the Tohono O’odham Nation. Such images can be utilized in the classroom to enhance traditional stories and underscore himdag teachings.

The Tohono O’odham have a rich history of migratory traditions that are integral to their cultural identity. Drones offer a unique perspective for capturing the traditional migratory routes of the Tohono O’odham, contributing to their preservation. These traditions include important locations such as Las Calenturas, Pozo Prieto, and La Salina, a salt-gathering site in Sonora, Mexico (Demby, 2018). With advancements in technology, drones have emerged as valuable tools for preserving and documenting these traditional paths. They supplement the teachings of the Tohono O’odham way of life and values and reinforce the power of oral traditions through visual imagery. These routes, often passed down orally through generations, can now be documented with high-definition images and videos. This visual documentation not only preserves the landscapes and paths for future generations but also provides a dynamic way to share cultural knowledge.

Additionally, drone use can supplement himdag teachings. Himdag, the concept encompassing the Tohono O’odham culture and way of life, includes language, traditions, and practices (Woods et al., 2002). Drones can serve as educational supplements to himdag teachings, allowing young children to see as well as hear about traditional sites of their nation. This visual aid enhances understanding and retention, making cultural education more engaging and impactful. Oral traditions are a powerful method of cultural transmission. When combined with visual imagery captured by drones, their impact is magnified. Children and the community can view the actual locations and routes discussed in stories and teachings, creating a more immersive and comprehensive learning experience. This approach bridges the gap between the past and present, ensuring that the Tohono O’odham’s migratory traditions remain vivid and alive in the collective memory. The integration of drones into documenting Tohono O’odham migratory traditions represents a harmonious blend of tradition and technology. This method ensures that the rich cultural heritage of the Tohono O’odham continues to be passed down through generations, enhanced by the powerful combination of oral traditions and visual imagery.

Drone use can also contribute to wildfire preparedness efforts and damage assessment. In the summer of 2022, the Contreras wildfire erupted, significantly affecting 29,482 acres of the Tohono O’odham Nation (Gabbert, 2022). The wildfire was named after its origin near Contreras Ranch and it spread rapidly due to dry conditions and high winds, consuming large areas of Tohono O’odham land. Containing the fire was particularly challenging due to the inaccessibility of the mountain range. This event underscores the potential of drone technology in supporting wildfire containment efforts. Drones offer tribal nations a fast, cost-effective, and safe method to assess wildfire damage. They facilitate rapid surveys, high-resolution mapping, and environmental impact analyses, which help identify vegetation loss, soil health issues, and erosion risks. Drones can also evaluate damage to infrastructure and cultural sites while minimizing costs and safety risks associated with manned flights. The data gathered by drones improves community decision-making, supports disaster aid applications, and integrates with geographic information systems for enhanced wildfire preparedness. By streamlining collaboration with federal agencies, drones strengthen recovery efforts and improve long-term resilience for tribal lands.

Drone use offers additional benefits when it comes to invasive species threats. For example, the Tohono O’odham Nation has faced significant challenges due to the invasion of buffelgrass (Pennisetum ciliare). This non-native species from Africa, introduced for livestock grazing, has become an aggressive invader that threatens the delicate desert ecosystem. Buffelgrass displaces native plants, reduces biodiversity, and increases fire risks, creating a pressing need for effective management strategies. Buffelgrass increases the frequency and intensity of fires (Saguaro National Park, 2011). These intense fires damage the native flora, including tribally protected species like the ha:sañ (saguaro cactus), and lead to soil erosion and habitat degradation. The ha:sañ is not just a key ecological and cultural plant for the Tohono O’odham; the tribal council passed a resolution giving legal personhood and protection to this plant.

Historically, the Tohono O’odham Nation has employed various methods to control buffelgrass, including manual removal, herbicides, and controlled burns. However, these approaches are laborintensive, costly, and sometimes environmentally damaging. The need for innovative, more efficient solutions has led to the exploration of drone technology as a promising tool for buffelgrass management. Equipped with advanced imaging and mapping capabilities, drones can quickly and accurately survey large areas, identifying buffelgrass infestations from above. This technology allows for precise targeting of affected areas, reducing the need for extensive ground surveys and minimizing environmental impact.

Buffelgrass is not the only invasive plant causing concern in the nation’s land. Stinknet (Oncosiphon pilulifer), tamarisk (Tamarix spp) and fountain grass (Pennisetum setaceum) are other examples of species recognized as threats to the regional flora and fauna.

As landscapes undergo continuous transformation over time, drones offer options for long-term monitoring. Systematic documentation and attribution of changes—particularly those of anthropogenic origin—enables more effective land management strategies to preserve the nation’s natural heritage for future generations. Implementing a structured temporal monitoring framework that revisits fixed locations enables precise tracking of landscape evolution, serving as a critical tool for maintaining ecosystem health and integrity.

DRONE USE AND DATA ANALYSIS TRAINING

Investing in drone training programs builds capacity within tribal communities, creating a pool of skilled professionals who can support ongoing and future initiatives. Such capacity building fosters economic development, enhances self-determination, and ensures that tribes can sustainably manage their natural resources. It is important not only to train the people; it is also imperative that the infrastructure is developed hand-in-hand. Remote sensing and data captured by drones and their products demand massive storage and computer power to run the procedures that generate useful outputs that can help the nation’s decision-making. Thus, in addition to training, building the appropriate technology infrastructure is necessary to advance capacity in tribal communities.

Micro-certificate programs (MCPs) are a relatively new educational concept gaining traction at higher education institutions across the country. At tribal colleges and universities (TCUs), these programs are specifically designed to equip participants with the skills and knowledge necessary to gain employment or start a business, without needing to spend two to four years away from home. Several tribal colleges, including TOCC, currently offer MCPs.

Drone photographs such as this one of La Salina, the O’odham’s saltgathering site in Sonora, Mexico, help document environmental changes as well as traditional trade routes.

The goals of MCPs heavily depend on establishing collaborative partnerships with various entities, including tribal departments, mainstream universities, non-governmental organizations, and local districts. This collaboration aims to create courses and resources that cater to the community’s training and employment needs (Quijada et al., 2025).

To fully harness the potential of drones for natural resource monitoring, a drone micro-certificate training program should include several key components. Drone pilot certification ensures that tribal members are certified to operate drones safely and legally. Data collection techniques teach participants effective methods for capturing high-quality data using drones. And data analysis and interpretation trains participants in software tools and techniques for processing and analyzing data collected by drones.

Currently, the Tohono O’odham Conservation Collaborative (Quijada et al., 2025) is taking the initial steps to develop a micro-certificate in drone imagery analysis. This program will aim to train field technicians in using drones for the conservation and management of Tohono O’odham natural resources.

BEST PRACTICES AND RECOMMENDATIONS

To respect and support tribal data sovereignty in the context of drone imagery and analysis, several best practices and recommendations should be considered, starting with developing data governance frameworks. This entails establishing frameworks that outline the roles, responsibilities, and rights of all stakeholders involved in drone data collection and analysis. These frameworks should be developed in consultation with tribal governments and reflect their sovereignty and cultural values.

There should also be a goal of collaborative approaches that engage in partnerships between Indigenous communities, researchers, and technology providers that are built on mutual respect and collaboration. These partnerships should ensure that tribes are active participants in all stages of data collection, analysis, and decision-making processes. Additionally, there should be a focus on developing and implementing clear protocols with community members before conducting drone flights and data collection to ensure informed consent. As part of this process, the purpose, methods, and potential uses of the data should be communicated transparently.

At the same time, it is essential to invest in capacity building and training, such as building initiatives that provide Indigenous communities with the skills and resources needed to manage and analyze drone data. This includes training programs, access to technology, and support for developing local expertise. It’s important to uphold the goal of maintaining data privacy by adopting robust measures to safeguard the information collected by drones. This includes secure data storage, restricted access, and protocols for handling sensitive information.

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Tribal data sovereignty and the use of drones for monitoring cultural and natural resources are essential for the self-determination and cultural preservation of Native American tribes. By investing in drone training, tribes can protect their lands and sustainably manage resources. These initiatives will enhance the resilience and prosperity of tribal communities across the United States and beyond. The Tohono O’odham Nation’s integration of drone technology will reflect a blend of tradition and innovation, empowering them to address contemporary challenges while preserving cultural heritage.

Adrian Quijada PhD, is the director of the Land Grant Office of Sustainability at TOCC; Ivan Parra-Salazar, PhD(c), is a GIS, remote sensing and unmanned aerial vehicles specialist and the director of the Euclidean Distance Analysis Group (EudistaG), Mexico; Eric D. Verwys is the assistant director at the Tohono O’odham Nation Natural Resources Department; Laura Sujo-Montes, PhD, is the dean of the Education Division at TOCC; Caroline Patrick-Birdwell, MSc, is a geographical information science instructor at TOCC; and Mario Montes- Helu, PhD, is the dean of the Sustainability Division at TOCC.

REFERENCES

AECOM Sustainable Legacies. (2021). Drones Reducing Flood Risk for Navajo Housing Authority Units. Retrieved from https://publications .aecom.com/sustainable-legacies/projects/crownpoint-flood-study-andhazard- mitigation-alternatives-project/

Demby, S. (2018, July 5). Keeping the Salt in the Earth. NACLA Report. Retrieved from https://nacla.org/blog/2018/07/05/keeping-salt-earth

Cherokee Federal. (2020). Cherokee Federal and Partners Leverage the Power of UAVs to Conserve Our Nation’s Natural Resources. Retrieved from https://cherokee-federal.com/industry-insights/cfed-and-partners-leverage- the-power-of-uavs

Gabbert, B. (2022, July 19). All But Four of the Kitt Peak Observatory Structures Have So Far Survived the Contreras Fire. Wildfire Today. Retrieved from https://wildfiretoday.com/2022/06/19/all-but-four-of-the-kitt-peak-observatory- structures-have-so-far-survived-the-contreras-fire/

Kukutai, T., and Taylor, J. (Eds.). (2016). Indigenous Data Sovereignty: Toward an Agenda. Centre for Aboriginal Economic Policy Research (CAEPR Research Monograph No. 38). Canberra: Australian National University Press.

Lovett, R., Lee, V., Kukutai, T., Cormack, D., Carroll Rainie, S., & Walker, J. (2018). Good Data Practices for Indigenous Data Sovereignty and Governance. In A. Daly, S.K. Devitt, & M. Mann (Eds.), Good Data (Vol. 1, pp. 26–36). Amsterdam: Institute of Network Cultures.

Quijada, A., Saunders, R., Gault, L., Franklin, K., & Hansen, G. (2025). Tohono O’odham Conservation Collaborative: Creating Sustainable Conservation Career Tracks within Indigenous Communities. International Journal of Wilderness, 31(1). (In press).

Saguaro National Park. (2011). Buffelgrass Management in Saguaro National Park. National Park Service. Retrieved from https://www.nps.gov/articles /buffelgrass-management-saguaro.

Smith, K.N. (2017). Indigenous People Are Deploying Drones to Preserve Land and Traditions. Discover Magazine. Retrieved from https://www.discovermagazine. com/environment/indigenous-people-are-deploying-drones-topreserve- land-and-traditions

Woods, T.K., Blaine, K., & Lauri, F. (2002). O’odham Himdag as a Source of Strength and Wellness Among the Tohono O’odham of Southern Arizona and Northern Sonora, Mexico. The Journal of Sociology & Social Welfare, 29(1), 35-56. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.wmich.edu/jssw/vol29/iss1/4