INTRODUCTION

American Indian and Alaska Native (AIAN) students enrolled in colleges across the United States bring a variety of cultural experiences, values, and strengths to the learning environment. Moreover, AIAN college graduates provide needed diversity in a variety of employment capacities. With nearly 600 federally recognized tribes in the United States, AIAN individuals and communities possess a wealth of culturally rich experiences and traditions (National Conference of State Legislators, 2013). However, according to the U.S. Department of Education, there are lower numbers of college enrolled AIAN students compared to other ethnic groups and college dropout rates continue to rise (Freeman & Fox, 2005; Hunt & Harrington, 2010; U.S. Department of Education, 2008). AIAN students have the lowest retention rates for the first, second, and third year of college (Consortium for Student Retention Data Exchange, 2007).

Many factors have been identified as challenges for AIAN students in pursuit of higher education, including under-preparation, adjustment difficulties to the academic community, problems with family and self, cultural differences, social isolation, and monetary complications (Hoover & Jacobs, 1992; Hunt & Harrington, 2010; Vermillion, 2012; Wells, 1989). Meanwhile, few researchers have explored the positive qualities and cultural strengths of AIAN students and how they contribute to college success. The need to identify strategies to assist AIAN students in educational achievement is imperative.

While research among AIAN students often focuses on challenges and utilizes a deficit perspective, it is important to bring a positive perspective of honoring and incorporating the knowledge, experiences, abilities, and successes of AIANs. Current research and theory do not always focus on the cultural knowledge, skills, and abilities of AIANs or other socially marginalized groups and communities of color. Research on underserved students that comes from a deficit perspective, focused on those who fail, can contribute to negative and prejudicial attitudes, as well as lowered expectations among faculty, staff, and administrators. Moreover, it often eliminates the voices of those students (Hunt & Harrington, 2010; Yosso, 2005).

In an effort to incorporate the cultural wealth of AIAN students and identify factors impacting college retention, researchers developed a life skills course, utilizing a culturally relevant, home-economic curriculum. The Life Skills at a Tribal College (LSTC) course was delivered in a family-oriented environment and addressed general self-efficacy and college retention among AIAN tribal college students.

METHODS

Researchers from United Tribes Technical College (UTTC) and North Dakota State University (NDSU) explored the effects of a culturally relevant life skills curriculum on self-efficacy and college retention among AIAN tribal college students. The LSTC course was a semester-long class delivered in a home-like setting on the UTTC campus that included cooking facilities and a large, round dining table. Each class meeting included meal preparation and dining as a group activity. The curriculum was based on Family and Consumer Science Content Standards (2008), adapted for cultural relevance. Adaptations for cultural relevance included the use of Gregory Cajete’s (1994) “Learning from Native Science” model (Figure 1) and a humanistic approach to learning. In addition, a grandmother figure was the primary instructor for the course. The use of a grandmother figure as the instructor reflected the traditional Indigenous value of learning from respected elders and a matriarchal social order, which is common among the five governing tribes of UTTC (Cajete, 1994; Calsoyas, 2005; Varcoe, Bottorff, Carey, Sullivan, & Williams, 2010). The LSTC curriculum is available for review, download, and educational use at http://www.uttc.edu/landgrant/resources/lifeskills/educators.

Participants in the study were purposively sampled, newly enrolled UTTC students whose ACT test scores indicated academic under-preparation. Purposive sampling was utilized as the intent was to select participants who were most at-risk for attrition. The sample, similar to other UTTC students, included participants with various tribal affiliations, ages, and number of dependents. Due to the LSTC curriculum and overall research intent, a smaller sample size (enrollment goal=10 per class for four sessions; actual enrollment=20) was appropriate for the project (Creswell, 2006; Hays & Singh, 2012). Students enrolled in preparatory classes due to low ACT scores were invited to participate in the LSTC class. Recruitment methods included oral and e-mail invitations, presentations during orientation and preparatory classes, and promotion of the class through housing officers and campus recruiters.

Institutional Review Board (IRB) approval was granted from both UTTC and NDSU. Informed consent was obtained upon invitation to participate in the class. Information collected via questionnaires was anonymous and collected by the on-site instructor who assigned numbers to each participant. Data from completed questionnaires was coded, entered, and analyzed by a blinded researcher. Signed informed consent, participant numbers, and questionnaires were kept in a locked cabinet.

Research instruments included a pre- and post-questionnaires. Questionnaires were administered to students enrolled in the LSTC course during the first day of class and the last week of class. The questionnaire included demographic information and the general self-efficacy scale—a validated scale utilized in over 33 different languages and tested for validity with multicultural populations (Schwarzer & Jerusalem, 1995). From January to April 2014, participants responded to general self-efficacy questions, initially on a scale of 1 to 4, but later revised to a scale of 1 to 10 (1=not at all true, 10=exactly true).

To evaluate general self-efficacy, participant responses were summed for a total self-efficacy score and compared between pre- and post-LSTC class. Student retention was evaluated using two different measures: 1) within-semester retention which measures students who dropped out of the LSTC course and/or dropped out of UTTC during the semester they were enrolled in the LSTC course, and 2) semester-to-semester retention which evaluates the enrollment of eligible students the semester after they completed the LSTC course. Descriptive statistics were used to determine retention data.

RESULTS

Demographic information is presented in Table 2 for all participants who filled out a pre-questionnaire (n=26), and those who completed the LSTC class (n=9). As seen in Table 2, the majority of participants were female (n=17), 22 years or older, and had children. More than half were single parents and almost all lived on campus. These demographics are consistent with other TCUs (AICF, 2003; Freeman & Fox, 2005; NCES, 2008). Participants in the LSTC class represented nine different tribal nations, including Cheyenne River Sioux, Oglala Lakota/Sioux, Omaha, Rosebud Sioux, Santee, Sisseton Wahpeton Oyate, Standing Rock Sioux, Turtle Mountain Band of Chippewa, and Yankton Sioux.

Retention information for all four semesters, including fall 2013, spring 2014, fall 2014, and spring 2015 is presented in Table 3. Retention rates reported include within-semester as well as semester-to-semester rates for UTTC overall and LSTC participants specifically. The low retention rates for spring 2014 among LSTC participants compared to other semesters reflects low numbers of participants and poor within-semester retention.

*Participants who did not complete the Life Skills at a Tribal College course had retention rates of 33% (fall 2013 to spring 2014), 20% (spring 2014 to fall 2014), and 0% (fall 2014 to spring 2015).

DISCUSSION

The tribal nations represented in the LSTC class highlight the culturally rich learning environment present in tribal colleges. Students at UTTC bring their tribal culture and values and learn alongside other representatives of tribal nations from across the United States. Many of the participants in the LSTC class had peers who were also single parents with young children. Of the nine participants who completed the LSTC class, six had children and five of those were single parents. Our study demographics are similar to typical AIAN students in other learning environments, but quite different than the average demographic at larger four-year institutions (Freeman & Fox, 2005; Hunt & Harrington, 2010). For example, 69.8% of the full-time students at NDSU are between the ages of 18 and 21 (NDSU, 2014), compared to 38.5% of the total number of students enrolled at UTTC, and 11.1% of the students who completed the LSTC class. Moreover, LSTC participants were primarily female (66.7%), while females represent 44.2% of the student population at NDSU (NDSU, 2014). Older than average students with children are less common as a demographic characteristic at larger, four-year institutions when compared to TCUs.

General self-efficacy did not increase significantly over the course of the LSTC class. While participants met regularly throughout the semester (twice a week for 18 weeks), this could be a reflection of inadequate meetings, sporadic attendance, or the lack of time spent on objectives that address self-efficacy. Non-significant changes in general self-efficacy may also have been impacted by the change from a 4-point scale (January-April 2014) to a 10-point scale (April 2014-May 2015).

            Enrollment in the LSTC course appeared to have limited influence on within-semester college retention for AIAN tribal college students. Enrolled students faced a variety of barriers including the primary barrier (and aim of recruitment) of under-preparation for the academic environment. All of the participants who completed the course lived in on-campus housing or residence halls. Only four of all original participants (n=26) resided off-campus. Within-semester retention rates were similar or lower than overall retention rates at UTTC. These retention rates occurred despite the financial incentive offered to enrolled participants in the LSTC class. While AIAN students have cited financial concerns as reasons for attrition (Huffman, 2003; Hunt & Harrington, 2010; Keith, Stastny, & Brunt, 2016), financial incentive did not appear as a primary factor for retention. Also, students may have experienced a social stigma as participants in a class where recruited students were enrolled in preparatory coursework. However, we did not include a measure of why participants left the course (or the college environment) due to the logistical difficulty of trying to reach them. In addition, we did not measure UTTC staff/faculty/student perception of the LSTC class so it is unclear what role financial incentive or social stigma may have played in student attrition.

For those participants who completed the LSTC course, semester-to-semester retention was improved. Three out of four semesters showed 100% retention of students who completed the class. Comparatively, the retention rates at UTTC ranged from 57% to 76% for the same time period. Spring 2014 retention in the LSTC course was lower than it was overall at UTTC. In addition, the semester-to-semester retention rate of LSTC participants was higher than those participants who did not complete the class for all semesters. Semester-to-semester retention of participants who did not complete the class ranged from 0% to 33%. This may be indicative of the support system created through the small group setting of the LSTC class, as AIAN students have identified supportive instructors, staff, and peers as important factors for retention (Gloria & Robinson Kurpius, 2001; Guillory, 2009; Keith et al., 2016; Thompson, Johnson-Jennings, & Nitzarim, 2013). The formation of peer groups to assist in coping with challenges within the college environment has also been identified by AIAN students as a relevant factor for retention (Guillory, 2009). LSTC participants were a small group meeting regularly and working through learning objectives as a group.

Qualitative feedback from students indicated the value of being able to discuss a variety of issues and challenges (finances, parenting, relationships, as well as academics) with fellow participants. Lowe (2005) identified finding a place of belonging, incorporating students’ cultural values and identity, and providing support for cultural practices as important for AIAN students. The LSTC participants and instructors, including the class leader who was an older, grandmother figure, were a small group, utilizing the same space each week for the full semester as a way to promote comfort and peer relationships among participants. In addition, efforts were made to create a comfortable, welcoming environment for participants, which has also been identified as a factor in retention of AIAN students (Jackson, Smith, and Hill, 2003).

The LSTC curriculum, including classroom activities and learning objectives, were designed to promote cultural values and self-efficacy among participants. These key components were inclusive of the recommendations Lowe (2005) shared as a successful AIAN student. In addition, students who are able to identify and utilize personal strengths related to their cultural identity and values have clear advantages for academic success and continued college enrollment (Huffman, 2001; White Shield, 2009).

CONCLUSION

American Indian and Alaska Native students experience the lowest rates of college retention and graduation at four-year institutions in the United States. They often face a variety of barriers to completing their education that may be similar to other ethnic groups while also overcoming obstacles that are culturally specific. However, AIAN students bring diverse personal and culturally rich skills and attributes that provide strength and motivation to persevere in the face of those challenges.

The LSTC class, an educational intervention utilizing a culturally relevant curriculum aiming to improve participants’ general self-efficacy and college retention rates, had a positive impact on AIAN tribal college student retention on a semester-to-semester basis. Participants in the LSTC class, despite enrollment in a targeted educational intervention, did not improve general self-efficacy or within-semester retention rates. Although short-term retention improvements were lacking, long-term retention improvements were shown as semester-to-semester retention rates were significantly higher for those who completed the course compared to overall rates at the tribal college, and compared to those who did not complete the LSTC class. Strategies to assist AIAN students with identifying personal strengths and achieving successful academic experiences should be the focus of current program planning and future research in institutions of higher education.

Jill F. Keith is an assistant professor in the Department of Family and Consumer Sciences at the University of Wyoming, and was a nutrition instructor at UTTC. Sherri Stasty is an associate professor in the Department of Health, Nutrition, and Exercise Sciences at NDSU. Wanda Agnew is faculty and extension nutrition educator in the Land Grant Department at UTTC. Ardith Brunt is a professor in the Department of Health, Nutrition, and Exercise Sciences at NDSU.

REFERENCES

American Indian College Fund (AICF). (2003). Cultivating Success: The Critical Value of American Indian Scholarships and the Positive Impact of Tribal College Capital Construction. Denver, CO.: American Indian College Fund.

Cajete, G. (1994). Look to the Mountain: An Ecology of Indigenous Education. Durango, CO: Kivaki Press.

Calsoyas, K. (2005). Considerations in the Educational Process Relative to Native Americans. Cambridge Journal of Education, 35(3), 301-310.

Consortium for Student Retention Data Exchange (2007).  CSRDE reports. Retrieved from http://csrde.ou.edu/web/reports.html

Creswell, J. (2006). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing among Five Traditions (2^nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Freeman, C., & Fox, M. (2005). Status and Trends in Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2005/2005108.pdf   

Gloria, A., & Robinson Kurpius, S. (2001). Influences of Self-Beliefs, Social Support, and Comfort in the University Environment on the Academic Non-persistence Decisions of American Indian Undergraduates. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 7(1), 88-102.

Guillory, R. (2009). American Indian/Alaska Native College Student Retention Strategies. Journal of Educational Development, 33(2), 12-38.

Hays, D. & Singh, A. (2012). Qualitative Inquiry in Clinical and Educational Settings. New York: Guilford Press.

Hoover, J., & Jacobs, C. (1992). A Survey of American Indian College Students: Perceptions toward Their Study Skills/College Life. Journal of American Indian Education, 32(1).  Retrieved from http://jaie.asu.edu/v32/V32S1sur.htm

Huffman, T. (2001). Resistance Theory and Transculturation Hypothesis as Explanations of College Attrition and Persistence among Culturally Traditional American Indian Students. Journal of American Indian Education, 40(3), 1-39.

Huffman, T. (2003). A Comparison of Personal Assessments of the College Experience among Reservation and Non-Reservation American Indian Students. Journal of American Indian Education, 42(2), 1-16.

Hunt, B., & Harrington, C. (2010). The Impending Educational Crisis for American Indians: Higher Education at the Crossroads. Indigenous Policy Journal, 21(3), 1-13.

Jackson, A., Smith, S., & Hill, C. (2003). Academic Persistence among Native American College Students. Journal of College Student Development, 44(4), 548-565,

Keith, J., Stastny, S., & Brunt, A. (2016). Barriers and Strategies for Success for American Indian College Students: A Review. Journal of College Student Development, 57(6), 698-714.

Lowe, S. (2005). This Is Who I Am: Experiences of Native American Students. New Directions for Student Services, 2005(109), 33-40.

National Center for Educational Statistics (NCES). (2008). Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2008/nativetrends/ind_6_1.asp  

National Conference of State Legislatures (2013). Federal and State Recognized Tribes. Retrieved from http://www.ncsl.org/issues-research/tribal/list-of-federal-and-state-recognized-tribes.aspx

North Dakota State University (NDSU). (2014). Student Demographics. Retrieved from https://www.ndsu.edu/data/enrollment/demographics/#c250183

Schwarzer, R., & Jerusalem, M. (1995). Generalized Self-Efficacy Scale. In J. Weinman, S. Wright, & M. Johnston, Measures in Health Psychology: A User’s Portfolio. Causal and Control Beliefs (pp. 35-37). Windsor, UK: NFER-NELSON.

Thompson, M., Johnson-Jennings, M., & Nitzarim, R. (2013). Native American Undergraduate Students’ Persistence Intentions: A Psychosociocultural Perspective. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(2), 218-228.

U.S. Department of Education (2008). National Center for Education Statistics, Status and Trends in the Education of American Indians and Alaska Natives. Alexandria, VA: ED Pubs.

Varcoe, C., Bottorff, J., Carey, J., Sullivan, D., & Williams, W. (2010). Wisdom and Influence of Elders: Possibilities of Health Promotion and Decreasing Tobacco Exposure in First Nations Communities. Canadian Journal of Public Health, 101(2), 154-158.

Vermillion, L. (2012, November). Native American Students and Higher Education. Presentation at the Pedagogical Luncheon for North Dakota State University Faculty, Fargo, ND.

Wells, R.N. (1989). A Survey of American Indian Students. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/63026150?accountid=6766

White Shield, R. (2009). Identifying and Understanding Indigenous Cultural and Spiritual Strengths in the Higher Education Experiences of Indigenous Women. Wicazo Sa Review, 24(1), 47-63.

Yosso, T. (2005). Whose Culture Has Capital? A Critical Race Theory Discussion of Community Cultural Wealth. Race Ethnicity & Education, 8(1), 69-91.

---